X. PALEONTOLOGY, BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

This chapter X of the Bibliography 7.0 contains 288 pages with >2150 papers. These are mainly papers of a more general or regional nature. Numerous additional paleontological papers that deal with faunas/ floras from specific localities are listed under those areas in this Bibliography.

Four relatively recent introductory review papers on Indonesian fossils were published in 2014 in Berita Sedimentologi (FOSI/ IAGI): Cenozoic biostratigraphy (Van Gorsel, Lunt and Morley BS 29), Cenozoic macrofossils (Van Gorsel, BS 30), Paleozoic and Mesozoic faunas and floras (Van Gorsel, BS31 a, b). Most of the introduction on this web page and the lengthier version in the attached pdf is taken from these papers.

This chapter is organized in six sub-chapters:

• X.1. Quaternary-Recent faunas- microfloras and distribution
• X.2. Tertiary
• X.3. Jurassic - Cretaceous
• X.4. Triassic
• X.5. Paleozoic
• X.6. Quaternary Hominids, Mammals

The attached pdf consists of both a detailed bibliography as well as lengthy introductions for each of the sub-chapters.

Download pdf - Chapter X. PALEONTOLOGY (8.9 MB)

X.1. Quaternary-Recent faunas-microfloras and modern distribution

This section X.1 of Bibliography 7.0 mainly contains 546 papers on the taxonomy of modern or sub-recent microfaunas and microfloras as well as papers on their distribution in Recent sediments of SE Asia. For a more extensive introduction see Van Gorsel, Lunt and Morly (2014, Bertia Sedimentologi 29). Tables 1 and 2, in the attached pdf, list many of the key papers on the various fossil groups.

An understanding of modern biofacies distributions is obviously significant for the interpretation of depositional environments and paleoclimates in the geological rock record. Different microfossil groups and species lived in different environments, and once the distributions of modern counterparts are understood, these can assist in the interpretation of ancient depositional environments, sequence stratigraphy, recognition of displaced faunal elements, etc.

X.3. Tertiary

Cenozoic sediments and volcanics cover about ¾ of the islands of Indonesia (Van Bemmelen, 1949), so it should not be surprising that the vast majority of paleontological studies has been on Cenozoic micro- and macrofossils. This section X.2 contains >410 papers on Cenozoic faunas and floras of Indonesia and surrounding regions. These tend to be papers of a more general nature, and additional titles on this topic may be found in the various area chapters if the fossils described were from a specific area only. Tables 3,4,5 and 6, in the attached pdf, list many of the key papers on the various fossil groups.

For more detailed overviews see the two relatively recent papers on Cenozoic fossils of Indonesia: Van Gorsel, Lunt and Morley (2014a; microfaunas/ biostratigraphy) and Van Gorsel (2014b, macrofossils).

X.3. Jurassic- Cretaceous

A significant amount of literature has been published on Mesozoic faunas of Indonesia. This sub-chapter X.3 of Bibliography 7.0 contains 87 papers on Jurassic- Cretaceous faunas and floras of Indonesia and surrounding regions. These tend to be papers of a more general nature, and the majority of references on this topic is in the area chapters if the fossils described were from a specific area only. For a more extensive introduction to Jurassic- Cretaceous faunas and floras in Indonesia see Van Gorsel (2014). Most of the key papers on Jurassic and Cretaceous fossil groups papers are flagged in Tables 7 and 8 in the attached pdf.

Early reviews of Mesozoic geology and stratigraphy of Indonesia include Wanner (1925, 1931) and Umbgrove (1935, 1938). Mesozoic fossil localities on Sumatra were discussed by Tobler (1923) and and Fontaine and Gafoer (1989). Another useful collection of Pretertiary paleontologic studies in SE Asia is Fontaine (1990).

Other ‘classic’ reviews of Jurassic stratigraphy and key faunas of SE Asia include the papers by Fontaine et al. (1983), Sukamto and Westermann (1992) and Sato (1995).

Many of the paleontological papers from Indonesia are quite old (most of them from the early 1900's), but are still valuable. These include monographs on Jurassic- Cretaceous ammonites, belemnites, brachiopods, bivalve molluscs, etc. More recent work is mainly by Fauzie Hasibuan, Bandung, but mainly on fossils from Misool island

X.4. Triassic

This sub-chapter X.4 of Bibliography 7.0 contains 74 papers on Triassic faunas and floras of the Indonesian region. These tend to be papers of a more general nature, and many more titles on this topic are in the various area chapters if the fossils described are from a specific area only. Many of those papers are flagged in Table 9 in the attached pdf, which lists most of the key papers on the Triassic fossil groups. Much of this introduction is from Van Gorsel (2014).

A large amount of literature exists on Triassic faunas of Indonesia.. Early reviews of Triassic faunas and facies in the Indonesian region include Zwierzycki (1925), Wanner (1931) and Umbgrove (1935). A more recent, brief review of Triassic biostratigraphy and correlations of East Indonesia is by Hasibuan (2010)

Triassic sedimentary and igneous rocks are relatively widespread in Indonesia, both in East and West, especially Late Triassic rocks (Early Triassic is only known from Timor). They represent a wide variety of shallow and deep marine facies, in limestones, clastics and pelagic cherts. Triassic fossils have been described from Timor- Roti, Sumatra, W Kalimantan, E Sulawesi, Buton, Buru, Seram, Ambon, Misool, etc.

Most marine Triassic deposits of SE Asia- Indonesia appear to represent relatively low-latitude depositional settings in and around two branches of the Tethys Ocean (Paleo-Tethys, Mesotethys). Many of the authors of paleontological papers on Triassic faunas from East Indonesia since the early 1900's commented on the Alpine-Tethyan affinity of these Triassic faunas, with remarkable similarities in many of the species and rock facies between Indonesia and the eastern Alps, Himalayas, etc.

Triassic is a period characterized by major extinction events at both its base and at its top.

At many localities in Eastern Indonesia the Middle- Late Triassic is developed in a 'flysch-type' clastic facies, locally overlain by Norian-Rhaetian limestones (Timor, Savu/ Roti, Leti/ Babar, East Sulawesi, Seram, Ambon, Misool, Buru, Buton, etc.).

X.4. Paleozoic

This sub-chapter X.5 of Bibliography 7.0 contains 106 papers on Paleozoic faunas and floras of the Indonesian region, as well as related forms from mainland SE Asia. These tend to be papers of a more general nature, and many more titles on this topic are in the various area chapters if the fossils described were from a specific area only. Many of those papers were flagged in Tables 10-12 in the attached pdf, which list most of the key papers on Paleozoic fossils.

A fair body of literature exists on Paleozoic faunas of Indonesia, but much of it is in older and hard-to-find books and papers, and many of the papers are not in English or Indonesian. An early review of Paleozoic stratigraphy is by Brouwer (1931). Much of the introduction in the attached pdf is from Van Gorsel (2014) 'Introduction to Paleozoic fossils' in Berita Sedimentologi 31.

X.9. Hominids, Quaternary Mammals

This sub-chapter X.6 of Bibliography 7.0 contains 935 papers on Quaternary mammals, including hominids, from the Indonesian region, as well as related forms from mainland SE Asia. Additional titles on this topic may be in area chapters.

Indonesia has long been an area of great interest for the study of the Late Pliocene- Pleistocene vertebrate faunas, including hominids, and their evolution and dispersal from mainland Asia across the islands of Java, Sulawesi and farther East. There are many additional papers on this large field of research, but not all could be included in this bibliography. Early 1900's milestone work has been by Dubois and Von Koenigswald

Older mammal fossils are extremely rare in Indonesia, mainly a reflection of the rarity of pre-Pleistocene terrestrial deposits in the archipelago. Eocene acanthocerids (Hippopotamus family), common in Asia at that time, were reported from West Kalimantan and from Timor. The latter find is another indication that much of Timor Island was attached to Sundaland in Eocene time.

Present-day distributions of faunas and floras still reflect plate tectonic past history. Well-known biogeographic boundaries like the Wallace Line (1869), separating balanced ‘Asian’ Sundaland faunas from unbalanced island faunas on Sulawesi, Flores and islands farther East, and Lydekkers Line, separating the Australian faunas of Australia and New Guinea in the SE from the impoverished island faunas to its West.

The history of Late Pliocene- Recent terrestrial vertebrate evolution and dispersal is best documented on Java, where there is a succession of faunas reflecting island conditions in the Late Pliocene- Early Pleistocene, followed by the arrivals of a more diverse Asian mammal population (including Homo erectus) in the Middle Pleistocene around 1 Ma. Pleistocene vertebrate faunas were from SW Sulawesi, discovered relatively recently, have been interpreted as impoverished island faunas of Asian origin.

Early island populations are typically composed of a limited number of migrant species of Asian origin that are relatively good swimmers (elephants, hippos, deer; not humans or other predators). In the absence of carnivorous predators, mammal species commonly developed into either dwarfed species (pygmy Stegodon elephants) or giants (giant tortoises, rats, Komodo lizards, etc.) in the Pleistocene of, Timor, SW Sulawesi and Sumba. Similar forms from East Java and West Java suggest these parts of Java were also islands in the Early Pleistocene.

The first fossil evidence for human evolution and migration came with the discovery of ‘Java Man’ (Pithecanthropus erectus; now called Homo erectus) at Trinil by Dubois in 1891. Finding this rare material was a remarkable story of perseverance and luck. Additional Homo erectus fragments were reported in the 1930’s and later.

Younger, but still primitive Upper Pleistocene hominid fossils were found in a Solo River terrace at Ngandong in East Java, named Homo soloensis (‘Solo Man’) and represent another much-debated group of hominids transitional between H. erectus and H. sapiens. Latest age dating of these skulls is in the 40-70 ka range.

The incomplete fossil record, the often poorly documented origins of much of the fossil hominid material collected by local farmers and inaccuracies of various radiometric dating methods  still leaves much room for debate on timing of arrivals and evolution of hominids in the region. The most widely accepted interpretation of Homo erectus history has been an evolutionary transition from Homo habilis in E Africa around 1.8-1.6 Ma and a migration into SE Asia/ Java around 0.9-1.0 Ma. Swisher et al. (1994) reported a radiometric age of 1.81 Ma for a Homo erectus skull from Mojokerto, East Java, the oldest date for any H. erectus, and suggested it may have originated in Asia instead of Africa. However, their dating is on tuff samples that may not be from the same horizon as the H. erectus skull (De Vos and Sondaar 1994). Recent Ar/Ar dating of pumice layers at Sangiran dome yielded an age range of the Homo erectus-bearing interval between 1.51- 1.01 Ma.

Homo erectus probably reached the island of Flores by 0.8 Ma, as evidenced by well-dated stone tools. Flores is also the site of the latest new discovery of cave-dwelling Homo erectus-like dwarf population of hominids of Late Pleistocene age (95-13 ka). It was named Homo floresiensis, adults are only one meter tall, and it overlaps in time with ‘Solo Man’ and with modern man, Homo sapiens. Jacob et al. (2006) and others have argued that these Flores hominids should be regarded as a dwarf population of Homo sapiens.

Suggested Reading: (not a comprehensive list of all relevant papers)